Birds and other exotic animals have a series of particularities that must be known in depth by veterinarians to successfully treat their pathologies”

Birds and other exotic species, which are becoming more and more frequent as pets, are the great unknown in the routine practice of veterinarians. This may be due to the scarce specialization on them offered in universities during the veterinary careers or because of the few consultations they have to face in their daily practice. However, the increase of owners seeking professionals specialized in this type of animals forces them to increase their training in order to be able to perform successful interventions on these animals.

This Advanced master’s degree in Medicine and Surgery of Birds and Exotic Animals is aimed at veterinary professionals seeking a high-level specialization and, to this end, the program covers all the exotic species that come to the clinic most frequently, mainly birds, mammals, reptiles and wildlife.

Thus, the program includes a very complete information on all those tests and treatments that veterinarians must apply with total safety to care for these species, from proper clinical management, diagnosis and treatment of the most common pathologies, to laboratory tests, anesthesia, the main surgical tools, soft tissue surgery and traumatology, or postoperative management, for example. In short, it covers the latest elements that every veterinarian dealing with exotic patients should know and use in their daily practice.

Throughout this Advanced master’s degree, the student will be exposed to all the current approaches to the different challenges of his profession. A high-level step that will become a process of improvement, not only on a professional level, but also on a personal level. Additionally, at TECH we have a social commitment: to help highly qualified professionals to specialize and to develop their personal, social and professional skills throughout the course of their studies.  To do this, we will not only take you through the theoretical knowledge we offer, but we will show you another way of studying and learning, more organic, simpler and more efficient. We will work to keep you motivated and to develop your passion for learning, helping you to think and develop critical thinking skills. And we will push you to think and develop critical thinking.

This Advanced master’s degree is designed to give you access to the specific knowledge of this discipline in an intensive and practical way. A great value for any professional. In addition, as it is a 100% online program, the students themselves decide where and when to study. Without the restrictions of fixed timetables or having to move between classrooms, this course can be combined with work and family life.

Don't miss the opportunity to study with us and update your knowledge in exotic animal medicine and surgery”

This Advanced master’s degree in Medicine and Surgery of Birds and Exotic Animals contains the most complete and up-to-date scientific program on the market. The most important features include:

• The latest technology in online teaching software
• A highly visual teaching system, supported by graphic and schematic contents that are easy to assimilate and understand
• Practical cases presented by practising experts
• State-of-the-art interactive video systems
• Teaching supported by remote education
• Continuous updating and retraining systems
• Self-organised learning which makes the course completely compatible with other commitments
• Practical exercises for self-evaluation and learning verification
• Support groups and educational synergies: questions to the expert, debate and knowledge forums
• Communication with the teacher and individual reflection work
• Content that is accessible from any, fixed or portable device with an Internet connection

The specialization of veterinarians is essential to improve the health of exotic animals. Therefore, we propose a high level program with which you will be able to offer the maximum in your profession”

Our teaching staff is made up of active professionals with extensive experience. In this way, we fulfill the objective of updating your knowledge, thanks to the resources that our teachers offer you. A multidisciplinary team of professionals prepared and experienced in different environments, who will develop the theoretical knowledge in an efficient way, but, above all, will put at the service of your specialization the practical knowledge derived from their own experience.

This mastery of the subject matter is complemented by the effectiveness of the methodological design of this Advanced master’s degree. Developed by a multidisciplinary team of e-learning experts, it integrates the latest advances in educational technology. Thus, you will be able to study with a range of convenient and versatile multimedia tools that will give you the operability you need to improve your training.

The design of this program is based on Problem-Based Learning, an approach that sees learning as a highly practical process. To achieve this remotely, we will use telepractice learning. With the help of an innovative interactive video system, and learning from an expert, you will be able to acquire the knowledge as if you were actually dealing with the scenario you are learning about. A concept that will allow you to integrate and fix learning in a more realistic and permanent way.

We give you the opportunity to take a deep and complete immersion in the most up-to-date strategies and approaches in avian and exotic animal medicine and surgery"

Specialize with the latest educational methodology, which will allow you to easily self-manage your study time"

The contents of this program have been developed by different professors with a clear purpose: to ensure that our students acquire each and every one of the skills necessary to become true experts in this subject. The content of this Grand Master’s Degree enables you to learn all aspects of the different disciplines involved in this field. A complete and well-structured program that will take you to the highest standards of quality and success.

A unique syllabus that will be of great use in exotic animal care”

Module 1. Bird Taxonomy, Anatomy and Physiology

1.1. Taxonomic Classification of Psittaciformes

1.1.1. Taxonomic Classification
1.1.2. Worldwide Distribution
1.1.3. Anatomic Differences

1.2. Taxonomic Classification of Passerine Birds: Wild Birds

1.2.1. Taxonomic Classification
1.2.2. Worldwide Distribution
1.2.3. Anatomic Differences

1.3. Taxonomic Classification of Falconiformes and Other Orders

1.3.1. Taxonomic Classification
1.3.2. Worldwide Distribution
1.3.3. Anatomic Differences

1.4. The Skeletal System

1.4.1. Bone Ossification
1.4.2. The Skull

1.4.2.1. The Premaxillary Area
1.4.2.2. The Jaw

1.4.3. The Axillary Skeleton: The Epiaxial Hypoaxial Muscles

1.4.3.1. Cervical Vertebrae
1.4.3.2. Thoracic Vertebrae
1.4.3.3. The Synsacrum: Special Anatomy
1.4.3.4. Caudal Vertebrae
1.4.3.5. Sternum
1.4.3.6. Wings: Complete Anatomy and Flight Muscles

1.4.4. Pelvic Limbs

1.4.4.1. Femur and Tibiotarsus
1.4.4.2. Phalanges: Finger Placement in Different Species

1.5. The Circulatory System

1.5.1. Arterial Anatomy
1.5.2. Venous Return
1.5.3. The Renal Carrier System
1.5.4. Blood Composition: Nucleated Red Blood Cells

1.6. The Respiratory System

1.6.1. The Nasal Cavity
1.6.2. Larynx and Trachea
1.6.3. The Syrinx: The Phonatory Organ in Birds
1.6.4. The Lungs

1.6.4.1. Gas Exchange

1.6.5. Air Sacs

1.7. The Digestive System

1.7.1. Beaks: Substitute for Lips and Teeth in Mammals

1.7.1.1. Wax Localization
1.7.1.2. Beak Functions

1.7.2. The Oropharynx

1.7.2.1. Solid Food Intake
1.7.2.2. Liquid Foods

1.7.3. The Esophagus
1.7.4. The Stomach

1.7.4.1. Proventricles
1.7.4.2. Ventricles

1.7.5. The Liver
1.7.6. The Pancreas
1.7.7. The Intestinal Package

1.8. The Urinary and Reproductive Systems

1.8.1. The Kidneys
1.8.2. The Ureters
1.8.3. Particularities in the Urinary System: The Salt Gland
1.8.4. Bird Sexing
1.8.5. Male Reproductive System
1.8.6. Female Reproductive System

1.9. The Nervous System

1.9.1. Sense Organs
1.9.2. Sight: Avian Eye Anatomy
1.9.3. Hearing
1.9.4. Smell and Taste
1.9.5. Touch: The Tegument

1.10. Anatomical and Physiological Particularities in Birds

1.10.1. The Thymus Gland
1.10.2. The Fabricious Bursa
1.10.3. The Spleen
1.10.4. The Pituitary Gland Pituitary Gland
1.10.5. Thyroid and Parathyroid Gland
1.10.6. Other Particularities

Module 2. Clinical Criteria for Avian Patients

2.1. Bird Maintenance

2.1.1. Special Furniture: Types of Cages
2.1.2. Stress
2.1.3. Physical exercise
2.1.4. Bird Maintenance in Captivity
2.1.5. Ultraviolet Light
2.1.6. Feathers Coloring
2.1.7. Water Availability
2.1.8. Medication Added to the Water
2.1.9. Water Baths and Sprays

2.2. Capture: Proper Physical Examination

2.2.1. Physical Capture

2.2.1.1. Capture Techniques
2.2.1.2. Related Injuries

2.2.2. Chemical Capture

2.2.2.1. Capture Techniques
2.2.2.2. Drugs Used

2.2.3. Bird Containment

2.3. Clinical Management and Preventive Medicine

2.3.1. Complete and Orderly Physical Examination
2.3.2. Vaccination
2.3.3. Deworming
2.3.4. Sterilization

2.4. Sampling and Drug Administration

2.4.1. Intravenous Route
2.4.2. Intraosseous Route
2.4.3. Oral Posology
2.4.4. Intramuscular Route
2.4.5. Subcutaneous Route
2.4.6. Topical Route
2.4.7. Other Entry Routes in Avian Patients

2.5. Poultry as Patients

2.5.1. The Challenges of Keeping Hens as Pets
2.5.2. Hens as Patients
2.5.3. The Most Common Chicken and Hen Races

2.6. Nutritional Requirements Feeding

2.6.1. Feeding Guidelines
2.6.2. Nutritional Composition Feed

2.6.2.1. Carbohydrates
2.6.2.2. Proteins
2.6.2.3. Fats
2.6.2.4. Vitamins

2.6.2.4.1. Liposoluble Vitamins
2.6.2.4.2. Hydrosoluble Vitamins
2.6.2.4.3. Antivitamins

2.6.2.5. Minerals

2.7. Type of Nutrition in Psittacine Birds

2.7.1. Seed Mixture
2.7.2. Feed:

2.7.2.1. Differences Between Granulated and Extruded

2.7.3. Fruits and Vegetables
2.7.4. Germinated Seeds
2.7.5. Cooked Legumes
2.7.6. Breeding Paste

2.7.6.1. Desired Undesired Effects

2.7.7. Other Products
2.7.8. Calculating Energy Needs

2.7.8.1. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
2.7.8.2. Maintenance Energy Requirements (MER)

2.8. Generalized Diet for the Most Common Psittacines in Clinics

2.8.1. Australian Parakeet (Melopsittacus Undulattus)
2.8.2. Nymph, Cocotilla or Carolina (Nymphicus Hollandicus)
2.8.3. Lovebird (Agapornis Spp.)
2.8.4. African Grey Parrot, Yaco (Psithacus Erithacus)

2.9. Generalized Diet for the Least Common Psittacines in Clinics

2.9.1. Amazon Parrot (Amazona Sp)
2.9.2. Macaw (Ara Sp)
2.9.3. Cockatoo (Cacatua Sp)
2.9.4. Ecleptus Parrot (Ecleptus Roratus)
2.9.5. Loris
2.9.6. Psittacine Diet Conversion

2.10. Other Dietary Aspects

2.10.1. Feeding in Passerine Birds
2.10.2. Diet in Other Birds
2.10.3. Diet in Hospitalized Patients

Module 3. Laboratory Tests

3.1. Clinical and Diagnostic Techniques: General Principles Diagnostic Evidence

3.1.1. Accurate Diagnoses
3.1.2. Considerations for Sample Preparation
3.1.3. Sample Transport and Processing

3.2. Hematology: Essential Tool

3.2.1. Cell Morphology

3.2.1.1. The Red Series in Blood
3.2.1.2. The White Series in Blood

3.2.2. Morphological Changes in Blood Cells

3.2.2.1. Degranulation
3.2.2.2. Immaturity
3.2.2.3. Toxicity
3.2.2.4. Reactivity

3.2.3. Factors to Consider in Hematology
3.2.4. Hematology Protocols in Birds

3.2.4.1. Erythrocyte Count
3.2.4.2. Hemoglobin Estimation
3.2.4.3. Hematocrit Estimation
3.2.4.4. Leukocyte Count
3.2.4.5. Thrombocyte Count
3.2.4.6. Fibrinogen Estimation

3.3. Biochemical Analysis in Birds

3.3.1. Biochemical Reference Ranges
3.3.2. Most Used Profiles

3.3.2.1. Total Protein: Increase and Decrease
3.3.2.2. Glucose: Increase and Decrease
3.3.2.3. Uric Acid, Urea and Creatinine
3.3.2.4. Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH)
3.3.2.5. Serum Glutamic-Oxaloacetic Transaminase (SGOT)
3.3.2.6. Bile Acids
3.3.2.7. Creatine-Phosphokinase (CPK): Muscle or Heart Failure
3.3.2.8. Calcium: Hypercalcemia Hypocalcemia
3.3.2.9. Phosphorus
3.3.2.10. Cholesterol

3.3.3. Age-Related Biochemical Changes

3.3.3.1. Proteinogram as a Diagnostic Tool
3.3.3.2. The Albumin
3.3.3.3. Alpha-1: Acute Disease Phase Indicator
3.3.3.4. Alpha-2: Acute Disease Phase Proteins
3.3.3.5. The Beta Fraction
3.3.3.6. The Gamma Fraction

3.4. Urinalysis: Suspected Nephropathy

3.4.1. Anatomo-physiological Recap of the Urinary System
3.4.2. Urine Collection Techniques in Birds
3.4.3. Urinalysis
3.4.4. Urinalysis Parameters

3.5. Fundamental Cytological Techniques: Cell Study

3.5.1. Skin and Plumage Scrapings

3.5.1.1. How to Perform Superficial Scrapings
3.5.1.2. How to Perform Deep Scrapings

3.5.2. Biopsy Collection

3.5.2.1. Different Application Techniques
3.5.2.2. Skin Biopsies
3.5.2.3. Skeletal Injury Biopsies
3.5.2.4. Small Biopsies Organs and Masses
3.5.2.5. Chronic Injury Biopsies
3.5.2.6. Biopsies of Small Lesions and Masses

3.5.3. Cytology: Functions

3.5.3.1. Sample Collection and Processing
3.5.3.2. Key Points Cytologic Interpretations

3.6. Advanced Cytologic Techniques

3.6.1. Aspiration

3.6.1.1. Complementary Tests
3.6.1.2. Aspiration Methods

3.6.2. Microbiological Swabs Collection

3.6.2.1. Upper Respiratory Routes
3.6.2.2. Lower Gastrointestinal Tract

3.6.3. Washing Technique

3.6.3.1. Crop Washing
3.6.3.2. Air Sac Washing

3.7. Preparing for a Necropsy

3.7.1. Fundamental Aspects

3.7.1.1. Necropsies
3.7.1.2. The Importance of Anamneses and Patient Medical Histories

3.7.2. Necessary Equipment: Instruments
3.7.3. Selecting Tissues in Necropsy Cases
3.7.4. Samples Preservation for Diagnostic Studies
3.7.5. Records: Injuries and Findings

3.8. External Patient Evaluation in Postmortem Examinations

3.8.1. Skin and Appendages: Evidence of Trauma
3.8.2. The Bone System
3.8.3. The Sensory System
3.8.4. The Muscular System. Initial Examination

3.9. Internal Patient Evaluation in Postmortem Examinations

3.9.1. The Cardiorespiratory and Cardiovascular Systems
3.9.2. Lymphoreticular System
3.9.3. The Liver
3.9.4. The Digestive system
3.9.5. Urinary System Assessment
3.9.6. Reproductive System Analysis

3.9.6.1. Necropsy in Females
3.9.6.2. Necropsy in Males

3.9.7. Necropsy Evaluation of the Nervous System
3.9.8. Examination Conclusion

3.10. Diagnostic Procedures for the Necropsy Technique

3.10.1. Histopathological Examination of Collected Samples

3.10.1.1. Sample Collection

3.10.2. Microbiological Analysis

3.10.2.1. Swabbing Technique

3.10.3. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

3.10.3.1. Infectious Laryngotracheitis
3.10.3.2. Infectious Bronchitis
3.10.3.3. Poxvirus
3.10.3.4. Mycoplasma Gallisepticum, Mycoplasma Synoviae
3.10.3.5. Other diseases

Module 4. Diagnostic Imaging Techniques

4.1. When to Anesthetize Birds for Diagnostic Techniques

4.1.1. Volatile Anesthesia
4.1.2. Injectable Anesthesia
4.1.3. Anesthesia in Special Conditions

4.2. Necessary Radiology Equipment

4.2.1. General Considerations
4.2.2. The X-Ray Unit
4.2.3. Screens, Chassis and Foils

4.3. Patients: Holding and Positioning

4.3.1. Laterolateral Projection
4.3.2. Ventrodorsal Projection
4.3.3. Craniocaudal Projection
4.3.4. Wing Projection
4.3.5. Caudoplantar Projection

4.4. Types of X-Rays: Contrast Radiography Studies

4.4.1. Conventional Radiography
4.4.2. Gastrointestinal Contrast Studies
4.4.3. Respiratory Contrast Studies
4.4.4. Urography
4.4.5. Myelography

4.5. Radiologic Interpretations

4.5.1. Anatomy Applied to Radiography
4.5.2. Abnormal Radiographic Findings the Respiratory System
4.5.3. Abnormal Radiographic Findings the Digestive System
4.5.4. Abnormal Radiographic Findings the Skeletal System

4.6. Fundamental Aspects of Avian Ultrasound

4.6.1. The Complete Ultrasound Diagnosis

4.6.1.1. Lineal Convex, Microconvex and Phased Array Probes
4.6.1.2. Ultrasound

4.6.2. Specific Diagnostic Objectives in Birds and Limitations
4.6.3. Necessary Technical Equipment for Ultrasound

4.7. Advanced Criteria for Avian Ultrasound

4.7.1. Patient Preparation for Ultrasound
4.7.2. Applied Anatomical Recap and Proper Patient Positioning
4.7.3. Ultrasound Interpretations

4.8. Endoscopy

4.8.1. Endoscopy

4.8.1.1. Necessary Equipment for Endoscopy
4.8.1.2. Rigid Endoscope

4.8.2. Patient Preparation and Positioning for Endoscopy
4.8.3. Clinical and Surgical Application of Avian Ultrasound

4.9. Avian Cardiology: Basic Fundamentals

4.9.1. Cardiac System Anatomy in Birds
4.9.2. Clinical Examination in Birds
4.9.3. Avian Electrocardiography

4.10. Veterinary Clinical Analysis in Birds

4.10.1. Serotyping Major Diseases

4.10.1.1. Salmonella Spp

4.10.2. Coprological Analysis

4.10.2.1. Parasitology
4.10.2.2. Bacteriology

4.10.3. Serology of the Most Prominent Diseases in Avian Medicine

4.10.3.1. Infectious Laryngotracheitis
4.10.3.2. Infectious Bronchitis
4.10.3.3. Newcastle Disease
4.10.3.4. Mycoplasma Spp
4.10.3.5. Influenza Aviar

Module 5. Pathologies Related to Handling

5.1. Most Common Pathologies

5.1.1. Paresis by Capture: Cause of Mortality in Birds

5.1.1.1. Affected Species and Characteristic Symptomatology
5.1.1.2. Physiopathogenesis
5.1.1.3. Differential Diagnosis
5.1.1.4. Treatment and Prevention

5.1.2. Lead Poisoning

5.1.2.1. Diagnosis
5.1.2.2. Management Primary, Chelating and Supportive

5.2. Other Intoxications

5.2.1. Zinc Poisoning
5.2.2. Diagnosis

5.2.2.1. Treatment
5.2.2.2. Primary Treatment
5.2.2.3. Chelating Treatment
5.2.2.4. Supportive Treatment

5.2.3. Ammonium Chloride Poisoning in Falconiformes

5.2.3.1. Clinical Signs
5.2.3.2. Pathological Changes
5.2.3.3. Physiological and Pathological Considerations

5.2.4. Copper Poisoning

5.2.4.1. Diagnosis
5.2.4.2. Treatment

5.2.4.2.1. Chelating Treatment
5.2.4.2.2. Supportive Treatment

5.3. Pathologies Derived from Poor Nutrition

5.3.1. Metabolic Osteopathies: Bone Injuries
5.3.2. Most Common Injuries Causes and Types
5.3.3. Symptomatology and Susceptible Species
5.3.4. Diagnoses and Treatments
5.3.5. Long Bone Deformities: Twisting and Bending

5.3.5.1. Describing Pathology Type
5.3.5.2. Clinical Signs in Birds
5.3.5.3. Treatment and Prevention

5.3.6. Bone Alterations in the More Distal Bones: Deformation

5.3.6.1. Slipped Tendon
5.3.6.2. Angel Wing
5.3.6.3. Curled Fingers

5.3.7. Starvation-Induced Cachexia

5.3.7.1. Definition and Etiology. Symptoms
5.3.7.2. Necropsy Findings
5.3.7.3. Treatment and Prevention

5.3.8. Behavioral Osteodystrophy

5.4. Oral Cavity Disorders

5.4.1. Beak Pathologies
5.4.2. The Oral Cavity and Oropharynx: The Tongue and Salivary Glands

5.4.2.1. Hypovitaminosis A
5.4.2.2. Trauma
5.4.2.3. Bleeding
5.4.2.4. Neoplasms
5.4.2.5. Halitosis

5.4.3. Infectious Diseases in Birds

5.4.3.1. Mucosal Necrosis
5.4.3.2. Fowl Pox
5.4.3.3. Anatidae Herpesvirus (Duck Viral Enteritis or Duck Plague)
5.4.3.4. Candidiasis (Candida Albicans Infection)

5.5. Esophagus and Gullet Pathologies

5.5.1. Esophagitis, Ingluvitis: Esophageal and/or Ingluvial Impaction
5.5.2. Esophagus and/or Crop Infestation by Capillaria Contorta and Other Capillaria spp
5.5.3. Candidiasis and Trichomoniasis

5.5.3.1. Esophageal Ingluvial

5.5.4. Ingluvial Pathologies

5.5.4.1. Calculations and Stasis

5.5.5. Crop Pathologies

5.5.5.1. “Sour Crop Syndrome”
5.5.5.2. Hanging Crop
5.5.5.3. Content Regurgitation

5.5.6. Common Neoplasms

5.6. Proventriculus Pathologies

5.6.1. Proventricular Dilatation Disease in Psittaciformes
5.6.2. Proventricular and Gizzard Impaction
5.6.3. Candidiasis (Candida Albicans Infection)
5.6.4. Other Pathologies:

5.6.4.1. Atony
5.6.4.2. Hypertrophy of Unknown Etiology
5.6.4.3. Proventriculitis
5.6.4.4. Presence of Foreign Bodies

5.7. Gizzard or Ventricle Pathologies: Glandular Stomach

5.7.1. Proventricular Dilatation Disease
5.7.2. Gizzard Ulcerations
5.7.3. Stomach Nematode Infestation
5.7.4. Neoplasms
5.7.5. Other Pathologies:

5.7.5.1. Muscular Atrophy and Traumatic Ventriculitis

5.8. Intestinal Pathologies

5.8.1. Malabsorption Syndrome
5.8.2. Non-Specific Enteropathies

5.8.2.1. Diahrrea in Birds

5.8.3. Lower Intestinal Tract Alterations

5.8.3.1. Colorectal Impactation
5.8.3.2. Rectal Prolapse

5.8.3.2.1. Intestinal Overexertion

5.8.4. Most Common Neoplasms
5.8.5. The Cloaca

5.8.5.1. Chloacitis: “Gonorrheal Discharge”
5.8.5.2. Prolapses
5.8.5.3. Most Common Neoplasms

5.9. Pathologies of the Liver

5.9.1. Lipidosis

5.9.1.1. Fatty Infiltration or Fatty Degeneration

5.9.2. Hemochromatosis

5.9.2.1. Iron Storage in Avian Organisms

5.9.3. Visceral Gout
5.9.4. Amilodosis
5.9.5. Most Common Neoplasms
5.9.6. Other Pathologies:

5.9.6.1. Toxic Hepatitis and Diabetes Mellitus

5.10. Endocrine Disorders

5.10.1. Thyroid Glands
5.10.2. Parathyroid Glands
5.10.3. Adrenal Glands
5.10.4. Ultimobranchial glands

5.10.4.1. Thoracic Localization

5.10.5. Pituitary. Avian Brains
5.10.6. Pancreas. Endocrine and Exocrine Function

5.10.6.1. Pancreatitis
5.10.6.2. Acute Pancreatic Necrosis
5.10.6.3. Most Common Neoplasms

Module 6. Avian Patient Diseases

6.1. Viral Diseases

6.1.1. Viral Diseases
6.1.2. Newcastle Disease (Paramyxoviridae Family)

6.1.2.1. Etiology
6.1.2.2. Serotype Classification
6.1.2.3. Clinical and Physiopathogenesis Characteristics
6.1.2.4. Diagnostic and Treatment Techniques

6.1.3. Fowl Pox (Poxviridae Family Virus)

6.1.3.1. Serotypes Detected in Birds
6.1.3.2. Clinical Signs in Patients
6.1.3.3. Diagnosis and Treatment

6.2. Other Viral Infections of Clinical Interest

6.2.1. Influenza Virus in Birds (Orthomyxoviridae Family)

6.2.1.1. Disease Epizootiology
6.2.1.2. Clinical Signs in Birds
6.2.1.3. Diagnosis
6.2.1.4. Prevention and Control

6.2.2. Herpesvirus Infections

6.2.2.1. Etiology
6.2.2.2. Marek's Disease

6.2.2.2.1. Polyneuritis Paralysis

6.2.2.3. Duck Plague

6.2.2.3.1. Duck Viral Enteritis

6.2.2.4. Avian Infectious Laryngotracheitis
6.2.2.5. Herpes

6.2.3. Other Viral Diseases

6.3. Most Common Bacterial Diseases in Clinics

6.3.1. Pasteurellosis: Cholera

6.3.1.1. History: Etiological Agent and Disease Transmission
6.3.1.2. Susceptible Species and Symptoms
6.3.1.3. Diagnosis
6.3.1.4. Treatment Immunity

6.3.2. Chlamydiosis: Ornithosis-Psittacosis

6.3.2.1. Causes and Most Susceptible Species
6.3.2.2. Effective Diagnosis
6.3.2.3. Treatment and Prevention

6.3.3. Salmonellosis

6.3.3.1. Definition
6.3.3.2. Etiological Agent
6.3.3.3. Distribution
6.3.3.4. Susceptible Species
6.3.3.5. Transmission
6.3.3.6. Diagnosis
6.3.3.7. Treatment and Prevention

6.4. Less Common Bacterial Diseases in Clinics

6.4.1. Avian Tuberculosis: Mycobacterium Spp

6.4.1.1. Causes and Most Susceptible Species
6.4.1.2. Effective Diagnosis
6.4.1.3. Treatment and Prevention

6.4.2. Pseudotuberculosis (Yersiniosis)

6.4.2.1. Causes and Most Susceptible Species
6.4.2.2. Effective Diagnosis
6.4.2.3. Treatment and Prevention

6.4.3. Escherichia Coli Infections

6.4.3.1. Definition
6.4.3.2. Etiological Agent
6.4.3.3. Distribution
6.4.3.4. Susceptible Species
6.4.3.5. Transmission
6.4.3.6. Diagnosis
6.4.3.7. Treatment and Prevention

6.5. Other Bacterial Diseases in Avian Patients

6.5.1. Botulism

6.5.1.1. History and Spread
6.5.1.2. Transmission

6.5.1.2.1. Clostridium Botulinum Bacilli

6.5.1.3. Clinical Symptoms and Lesions
6.5.1.4. Diagnosis and Treatment

6.5.2. The Red Disease: Erysipelothrix Rhusiopathiae

6.5.2.1. Etiology and Causative Agent Transmission: Wild Birds
6.5.2.2. Effective Detection

6.5.2.2.1. Symptoms and Lesions

6.5.2.3. Diagnosis and Treatment

6.5.3. Listeriosis: Listeria Monocytogenes

6.5.3.1. History: Etiological Agent and Disease Transmission
6.5.3.2. Symptoms Detected in Birds
6.5.3.3. Effective Diagnosis and Treatment

6.6. Fungal Diseases

6.6.1. Aspergillosis

6.6.1.1. Relevant Disease Characteristics
6.6.1.2. Detected Clinical Signs in Patients
6.6.1.3. Effective Diagnostic Techniques
6.6.1.4. Treatment, Prevention and Prophylaxis

6.6.2. Candidiasis

6.6.2.1. Candida Albicans Clinical Signs in Avian patients
6.6.2.2. Laboratory Diagnostic Techniques
6.6.2.3. Treatment and Pathology Control

6.6.3. Dermatophytosis, Ringworm

6.6.3.1. Predisposing Factors and Types of Birds Affected
6.6.3.2. Most Common Clinical Signs
6.6.3.3. Diagnosis and Control

6.7. Ectoparasites

6.7.1. Diptera

6.7.1.1. Flies and Mosquitos

6.7.2. Fleas (Siphonaptera)
6.7.3. Lice (Phthiraptera-Mallophaga)
6.7.4. Bedbugs (Hemiptera-Cimicidae)

6.7.4.1. Hematophagous Ectoparasites

6.7.5. Mites (Acari)

6.7.5.1. Most Common Ectoparasites

6.7.6. Ticks (Ixodide)

6.7.6.1. Macroscopic Parasites

6.7.7. Beetles (Coleoptera)

6.7.7.1. Disease Vectors

6.8. Performing Coprological Analysis in Birds

6.8.1. Most Prominent Coprological Techniques
6.8.2. Trematodes

6.8.2.1. Staves

6.8.3. Cestodes

6.8.3.1. Tapeworms

6.8.4. Nematodes

6.8.4.1. Special Nematodes Locations and Pathologies

6.9. Protozoa: SingleCell Microorganisms

6.9.1. Coccidiosis in Anseriformes, Galliformes and Passeriformes

6.9.1.1. Eimeria and Isospora Species
6.9.1.2. Caryospora Species
6.9.1.3. Other Coccidial Species in Birds

6.9.2. Trichomoniasis: Trichomonas Spp
6.9.3. Other Protozoa

6.9.3.1. Giardia, Hexamita and Histomonas

6.10. Hemoparasites

6.10.1. Microfilariae
6.10.2. Plasmodium Species
6.10.3. Haemoproteus Species
6.10.4. Leucocytozoon Species
6.10.5. Trypanosomiasis
6.10.6. Hepatozoon Species
6.10.7. Babesia Species

6.10.7.1. Avian Piroplasmas

6.10.8. Other Species

Module 7. Anesthesia and Analgesia in Birds

7.1. Anatomical and Physiological Characteristics in Avian Anesthesia

7.1.1. Anatomical Characteristics: Air Sacs
7.1.2. Physiological Considerations

7.1.2.1. Inspiration and Expiration
7.1.2.2. Ventilation Triggers
7.1.2.3. Hypoglycemia

7.1.3. Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Characteristics Avian Patients

7.2. Administering Distant Anesthesia

7.2.1. Handler Safety
7.2.2. Cooperating Birds: Adequate Management

7.2.2.1. Administering Anesthesia Routes and Techniques

7.2.3. Uncooperative Birds: Wild Birds

7.2.3.1. Administering Anesthesia Techniques
7.2.3.2. Darts
7.2.3.3. Other Mechanisms

7.2.4. Stress Prior to Administering Anesthesia

7.2.4.1. Activating the Sympathetic Nervous System
7.2.4.2. Other Hormonal Changes
7.2.4.3. How to Measure Stress
7.2.4.4. Physiological Effects Caused by Capture

7.3. Anesthesia Inhalation in Birds: The Anesthesia of Choice

7.3.1. Anesthesia Equipment Technical Considerations

7.3.1.1. Gases and Vapors

7.3.1.1.1. Isoflorane, Sevoflorane and Other Anesthetic Gases

7.3.2. Endotracheal Intubation
7.3.3. Air Sac Intubation

7.3.3.1. Exceptional Intubation

7.4. Monitoring during Anesthesia

7.4.1. Reflexes
7.4.2. Circulatory Volume
7.4.3. Pain
7.4.4. Cardiovascular Monitoring

7.4.4.1. Cardiac Suscultation
7.4.4.2. Capillary Refill Time
7.4.4.3. Electrocardiogram
7.4.4.4. Doppler Cardiac Monitoring or Echocardiography
7.4.4.5. Other Monitoring Techniques
7.4.4.6. Intravenous Fluid Therapy

7.4.4.6.1. Crystalloids and Colloids

7.4.5. Respiratory Monitoring

7.4.5.1. Respiratory Auscultation
7.4.5.2. Pulse Oximetry
7.4.5.3. Capnography

7.4.6. Temperature Monitoring: Hypothermia and Hyperthermia

7.4.6.1. Body Temperature Loss during Surgery: Monitoring and Prevention
7.4.6.2. The Consequences of Hypothermia
7.4.6.3. Hyperthermia

7.4.6.3.1. Prevention and Treatment

7.5. Injectable Anesthesia

7.5.1. Anesthetic Perfection
7.5.2. Dissociative Anesthetics
7.5.3. Opioids
7.5.4. Anesthesia in Field Conditions
7.5.5. hypothermia

7.5.5.1. Important Aspects in Preventing and Reducing Heat Loss during Anesthesia

7.6. Local Anesthesia and Analgesia

7.6.1. Local Anesthesia

7.6.1.1. Cardiovascular Monitoring
7.6.1.2. Drugs Used
7.6.1.3. Therapy Options

7.6.2. Analgesia

7.6.2.1. Types of Pain: Analgesia
7.6.2.2. Physiological Sensitivity in Birds
7.6.2.3. Analgesic Drugs

7.6.2.3.1. Acetylsalicylic Acid
7.6.2.3.2. Buprenorphine Hydrochloride
7.6.2.3.3. Butorphanol
7.6.2.3.4. Flunixin-Meglumine
7.6.2.3.5. Carprofen
7.6.2.3.6. Ketoprofen
7.6.2.3.7. Copper Indomethacin
7.6.2.3.8. Meloxicam
7.6.2.3.9. Other Analgesics

7.7. Anesthetic Emergencies

7.7.1. Respiratory Complications during Anesthesia

7.7.1.1. Respiratory Depression
7.7.1.2. Apnea and Respiratory Arrest
7.7.1.3. Airway Obstruction
7.7.1.4. Hyperventilation
7.7.1.5. Hypoxia

7.7.2. Specific Cardiovascular Complications during Anesthesia

7.7.2.1. Bradycardia
7.7.2.2. Tachycardia
7.7.2.3. Hypotension
7.7.2.4. Hypertension
7.7.2.5. Arrhythmias
7.7.2.6. Cardiac Arrest

7.7.3. Hemorrhaging in Avian Patients during Anesthesia

7.8. Anesthesia in Caged Birds: Psittaciformes and Passeriformes

7.8.1. Anatomical and Physiological Considerations
7.8.2. The Cardiovascular System
7.8.3. Thermoregulation
7.8.4. Respiratory Ventilation Systems
7.8.5. Preanesthetic Evaluation in Birds
7.8.6. Anesthetic Procedures
7.8.7. Types of Anesthetics Used
7.8.8. Local Anesthesia and Analgesia

7.9. Anesthesia in Aquatic and SemiAquatic Birds

7.9.1. Patients: Aquatic and SemiAquatic Birds
7.9.2. Physiological Constants Monitoring
7.9.3. Thermoregulation
7.9.4. Anesthetic Procedures
7.9.5. Types of Anesthetics Used
7.9.6. Local Anesthesia and Analgesia

7.10. Other Anesthetic Particularities

7.10.1. Anesthetic Particularities in Ratites

7.10.1.1. Anatomical and Physiological Considerations
7.10.1.2. Anesthetic Procedures
7.10.1.3. Types of Anesthetics
7.10.1.4. Local Anesthesia and Analgesia

7.10.2. Anesthesia in Galliforms
7.10.3. Anesthesia in Falconiformes
7.10.4. Euthanasia: Humane Act

7.10.4.1. Special considerations

Module 8. Anesthesia and Soft Tissue Surgery

8.1. Soft Tissue Surgery

8.1.1. Soft Tissue Surgeon in Birds
8.1.2. Patient Preparation

8.1.2.1. Hypothermia
8.1.2.2. Skin Preparation

8.1.3. Necessary Equipment
8.1.4. Sterile Cotton Balls
8.1.5. Bifocal Surgical Lenses
8.1.6. Microsurgery Tools
8.1.7. Suture Materials

8.2. Special Surgical Supplies in Bird Surgery

8.2.1. Hemoclips
8.2.2. Radiosurgery
8.2.3. Surgical Lasers

8.2.3.1. Most Used Types and Equipment

8.2.4. Microsurgery

8.3. Skin and Appendage Surgery

8.3.1. Feather Cysts

8.3.1.1. Plumafoliculoma

8.3.2. The Uropygian Gland

8.3.2.1. Most Common Pathologies

8.3.3. Wounds and Soft Tissue Injury Treatment
8.3.4. Most Common Neoplasms

8.3.4.1. Lipoma
8.3.4.2. Xanthoma

8.4. Reproductive System Techniques

8.4.1. Prior Patient Preparation
8.4.2. Sterilization
8.4.3. Salpingohysterectomy: Female Sterilization

8.4.3.1. Surgical Technique

8.4.4. Egg Obstruction in the Oviduct Dystocia in Birds

8.4.4.1. Cesarean Section: Egg Obstruction in the Oviduct
8.4.4.2. Uterine Torsion: Coeloma Inflammation

8.4.5. Orchidectomy

8.4.5.1. Anatomical Location of the Testicles: Intracellular
8.4.5.2. Technique

8.4.6. Testicular Endoscopic Biopsy

8.5. Gastrointestinal Tract Techniques I

8.5.1. The Tongue

8.5.1.1. Most Common Pathologies

8.5.2. The Proximal Esophagus

8.5.2.1. Esophageal Strictures: Causes and Treatments
8.5.2.2. Esophageal Trauma: Causes and Treatments

8.5.3. Ingluviotomy

8.5.3.1. Localization
8.5.3.2. Indications. Foreign Bodies

8.5.4. Crop Burns

8.5.4.1. Pathology Origin
8.5.4.2. Adequate Surgical Technique

8.5.5. Others Surgical Techniques of Choice

8.6. Gastrointestinal Tract Techniques II

8.6.1. Crop or Esophagus Lacerations

8.6.1.1. Traumatic Diet: Causes and Treatments
8.6.1.2. External Trauma: Causes and Treatments

8.6.2. Ingluviostomy Tube Placement

8.6.2.1. Feeding Tube Indications

8.6.3. Celiotomy: Opening the Coelomic Cavity

8.6.3.1. Indications and Complications
8.6.3.2. Left Lateral Celiotomy

8.6.4. Others Surgical Techniques of Choice

8.7. Gastrointestinal Tract Techniques III

8.7.1. Proventriculotomy: Proventriculus or Ventricle Access

8.7.1.1. Indications
8.7.1.2. Surgical Techniques of Choice

8.7.2. Yolk Saculectomy: Newborn Chicks

8.7.2.1. Indications
8.7.2.2. Surgical Techniques of Choice

8.7.3. Enterotomy

8.7.3.1. Cases Where Enterotomy Is Necessary
8.7.3.2. Type of Surgery to Applied

8.7.4. Enterectomy. Intestinal Anastomosis

8.7.4.1. Clinical Situations
8.7.4.2. Surgical Process

8.7.5. Ventral Midline Celiotomy

8.7.5.1. Indication This Type of Surgical Access
8.7.5.2. Approaches

8.7.6. Cloaca Disorders

8.7.6.1. Prolapsed Organs through the Cloaca
8.7.6.2. Cloacolito

8.8. Magnetic Biopsy Procedures

8.8.1. Hepatic biopsy

8.8.1.1. Indication This Type of Surgical Access
8.8.1.2. Approach

8.8.2. Pancreatic Biopsy

8.8.2.1. Pancreatic Alterations
8.8.2.2. Surgical Indications

8.8.3. Renal Biopsy

8.8.3.1. Indications
8.8.3.2. Necessary Technical Resources
8.8.3.3. Technique and Approach

8.9. Respiratory Surgical Techniques

8.9.1. Respiratory Surgery

8.9.1.1. Necessary Anatomy Recap

8.9.2. Tracheotomy

8.9.2.1. Indications

8.9.2.1.1. Presence of Aspergillomas and Foreign Bodies

8.9.2.2. Surgical Technique

8.9.3. Tracheotomy

8.9.3.1. Indications. Severe Tracheal Stenosis
8.9.3.2. Surgical Technique

8.9.4. Pulmonary Biopsy

8.9.4.1. Indications. Severe Tracheal Stenosis
8.9.4.2. Surgical Technique

8.9.5. Muting in Birds

8.9.5.1. Ethical Considerations

8.10. Postoperative Care

8.10.1. Stressful situtions
8.10.2. Thermal Recovery and Maintenance
8.10.3. Hospitalization and Swift Recovery
8.10.4. Self-Trauma Prevention
8.10.5. Postoperative Analgesia
8.10.6. Adequate Fluid Therapy
8.10.7. Nutritional Supplements

Module 9. Pathologies and Medical Treatments

9.1. Nutritional Treatments

9.1.1. Fluid Therapy: Clinical Application

9.1.1.1. Types of Fluid Therapy
9.1.1.2. Advantages and Disadvantages

9.1.2. Feeding Tube and Nutritional Support

9.1.2.1. Nutritional Needs
9.1.2.2. Enteric Nutrition Formulas

9.2. External Treatment

9.2.1. Claw/Nail and Beak Trimming
9.2.2. Feather Repair

9.2.2.1. Materials Instruments Used in Grafting
9.2.2.2. Bent Feather Repair
9.2.2.3. Partial Feather Substitution
9.2.2.4. Total Feather Substitution

9.2.3. Wing Trimming and Cutting
9.2.4. Wound Treatment Management Objectives

9.3.4.1. Bandage Care
9.3.4.2. Dressing Removal

9.3. Trauma Treatments

9.3.1. Bandages and Dressings

9.3.1.1. Bandage and Dressing Functions

9.3.1.1.1. Protection
9.3.1.1.2. Pressure
9.3.1.1.3. Support
9.3.1.1.4. Absorption, Moist Environment, Holding in Place
9.3.1.1.5. Comfort
9.3.1.1.6. Other Ideal Dressing Characteristics

9.3.1.2. Selection Process
9.3.1.3. Injury Evaluation

9.3.2. Types of Bandages Most Used in Orthopedic Surgery

9.3.2.1. EightShaped Bandage
9.3.2.2. EightShaped Bandage to the Body
9.3.2.3. Wing Bandage with Two Circular Bandages around the Body
9.3.2.4. Robert Jones Bandage
9.3.2.5. Ball Bandage

9.3.3. Protective Leg Casts
9.3.4. External Splints
9.3.5. Elizabethan Collars

9.4. Administering Drugs in Birds

9.4.1. Relevant Aspects in Drug Administration
9.4.2. Use Routes
9.4.3. Advantages and Disadvantages
9.4.4. Metabolic Drug Adjustment

9.5. Most Used Antibiotics in Avian Patients

9.5.1. Amikacin

9.5.1.1. Species Indicated and Dosage

9.5.2. Ceftazidime

9.5.2.1. Species Indicated and Dosage

9.5.3. Doxycycline

9.5.3.1. Species Indicated and Effective Dosage

9.5.4. Enrofloxacin and Marbofloxacin

9.5.4.1. Quinolones and Current Uses

9.5.5. Metronidazole

9.5.5.1. Species Indicated and Effective Dosage

9.5.6. Trimethoprim / Sulfamethoxazole

9.5.6.1. Adequate Dosage

9.5.7. Other Antibiotics Used

9.6. Most Used Antifungal Drungs in Avian Patients

9.6.1. Amphotericin B

9.6.1.1. Target Species and Dosage

9.6.2. Fluconazole

9.6.2.1. Dosage

9.6.3. Itraconazole

9.6.3.1. Dosage

9.6.4. Ketoconazole: Fungistatic

9.6.4.1. Dosage

9.6.5. Nystatin: Antifungal Macrolide

9.6.5.1. Target Species and Dosage

9.6.6. Other Antifungal Drugs of Clinical Interest

9.7. Most Used Antiparasitics in Avian Patients

9.7.1. Ivermectin

9.7.1.1. Target Species and Dosage

9.7.2. Albendazole

9.7.2.1. Target Species and Dosage

9.7.3. Fenbendazole

9.7.3.1. Target Species and Dosage

9.7.4. Levamisole

9.7.4.1. Species Type and Dosage

9.7.5. Selamectin

9.7.5.1. Species Type and Dosage

9.7.6. Toltrazuril

9.7.6.1. Dosage and Target Species

9.7.7. Other Antiparasitics of Clinical Interest

9.8. Other Drugs Used in Birds

9.8.1. Most Used Antivirals in Avian Patients

9.8.1.1. Aciclovir

9.8.1.1.1. Posology, Target Species and Dosage

9.8.1.2. Other Antivirals of Clinical Interest

9.8.2. Hormones Used in Birds

9.8.2.1. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone: ACTH

9.8.2.1.1. Bird Type and Dosage

9.8.2.2. Cabergoline

9.8.2.2.1. Effective Dosage

9.8.2.3. Oxytocin

9.8.2.3.1. Effective Dosage

9.8.2.4. Other Hormones of Clinical Interest

9.9. Medications Used for Nebulization

9.9.1. Nebulizer Use
9.9.2. F10 Use
9.9.3. Gentamicin
9.9.4. Amikacin

9.9.4.1. Dosage and Use

9.9.5. Amphotericin B

9.9.5.1. Dosage and Use

9.9.6. Clotrimazole

9.9.6.1. Dosage and Use

9.9.7. Others Medications Used for Nebulization

9.10. Ophthalmological Drops Used in Birds

9.10.1. Ciprofloxacin
9.10.2. Chloramphenicol
9.10.3. Tobramycin
9.10.4. Diclofenac
9.10.5. Prednisone

Module 10. Orthopedic and Ophthalmologic Surgery in Birds

10.1. Avian Ophthalmology: Eye and Eyelid Lesions

10.1.1. Anatomy Recap
10.1.2. Differences Between Species
10.1.3. Eyeball Pathophysiology
10.1.4. Most Used Treatments

10.2. Pododermatitis: Nails

10.2.1. Pathology Characteristics
10.2.2. Most Affected Bird Species
10.2.3. Current Treatments

10.2.3.1. Medical Treatment
10.2.3.2. Surgical treatment

10.2.3.2.1. Necrotic Debridement

10.2.4. Prevention
10.2.5. Treatment

10.3. Fractures. Bone Definition Loss

10.3.1. Bird Skeletons
10.3.2. Necessary Surgical Supplies and Preliminary Technical Considerations
10.3.3. Physical Examination and Preoperative Management of Avian Patients
10.3.4. Types of Bone Fractures and Dislocations

10.4. Fracture Correction: Fracture Treatment Objectives

10.4.1. Osteosynthesis Techniques in Birds

10.4.1.1. Advantages
10.4.1.2. Inconveniences

10.4.2. Internal Fastening

10.4.2.1. Medullary Nailing (Intramedullary or Centromedullary)
10.4.2.2. Banding

10.4.3. External Fastening: Bone Scaffolds

10.4.3.1. The Kirschnner-Ehmer Splint

10.5. Fastening Methods Humerus, Clavicle and Coracoid Fractures

10.5.1. Shoulder Girdle and Forelimb Anatomy
10.5.2. Humerus Fractures
10.5.3. Fastening Method for Distal and Subcondylar Humerus Fractures

10.5.3.1. Crossed Needles

10.6. Fastening Methods for Diaphyseal Forelimb Fractures

10.6.1. Relevant Aspects
10.6.2. Needles Placement in Different Fasteners
10.6.3. Proximal Ulnar Diaphysis Fractures, with Intact or Fractured Radius
10.6.4. Diaphyseal and Distal Ulnar Fractures, with Intact or Fractured Radius
10.6.5. Special Forelimb Cases

10.6.5.1. Proximally or Distally Fractured Radius
10.6.5.2. Intact Ulna

10.6.6. Elbow Dislocations

10.7. Fastening Methods the Carpus and Tarsus

10.7.1. Fastening the Carpal Joint

10.7.1.1. Relevant Aspects
10.7.1.2. Specific Treatment Recommendations

10.7.2. Fastening Tibiotarsus Fractures

10.7.2.1. Relevant Aspects
10.7.2.2. Tibiotarsus Fractures and Surgical Stabilization

10.7.3. Fastening Choices for Tarsometatarsal Fractures

10.8. Fastening Methods and Orthopedic Femur Pathologies

10.8.1. Relevant Aspects
10.8.2. Femur Fractures

10.8.2.1. Surgical Stabilization

10.8.3. Knee Dislocation

10.8.3.1. Choice Treatment

10.9. Less Common Bone Injuries

10.9.1. Neck Dislocation and Fracture

10.9.1.1. Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment

10.9.2. Keel Injuries

10.9.2.1. Pathology
10.9.2.2. Treatment

10.9.3. Wing Tip Injuries

10.9.3.1. Wing Wounds and Ulcers

10.9.3.1.1. Types of Wounds and Treatment

10.9.3.2. Bursitis

10.9.3.2.1. Symptoms and Treatment

10.9.3.3. Edema and Dry Gangrene Syndrome: Avascular Necrosis

10.9.3.3.1. Localization
10.9.3.3.2. Symptoms and Treatment

10.10. Postoperative Patient Care for Repaired Fractures

10.10.1. Physical Therapy for Wing Fracture Treatment
10.10.2. Patagium Treatment
10.10.3. Physical Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy in Birds

Module 11. Relevant Aspects of Lagomorfs and Rodents

11.1. Taxonomic Classification: Is a Lagomorf a Rodent?

11.1.1. Lagomorphs
11.1.2. Hystricomorph Rodents
11.1.3. Myomorph Rodents
11.1.4. Visible Differences Between the Different Species

11.2. Technical Requirements: The Importance of Adapting the Facilities to Each Species

11.2.1. Types of Accommodation
11.2.2. Absorbent Hygienic Bedding
11.2.3. Accommodation During the Hospitalization of the Patients

11.3. Nutritional Aspects: Nutritional Specifications in the Diets

11.3.1. Specific Feeding Patterns in Lagomorphs and Hystricomorph Rodents
11.3.2. Nutritional Programs for Myomorph Rodents
11.3.3. Nutritional Care in Special Situations

11.4. Anatomic Reminder: Different Species, Different Anatomies

11.4.1. The Domestic Rabbit
11.4.2. Hystricomorph Rodents
11.4.3. Myomorph Rodents

11.5. Clinical Handling and Preventive Medicine: The Key Factor for Excellence in the Eyes of the Owner

11.5.1. Handling

11.5.1.1. Handling Techniques for Examination in the Practice

11.5.2. Physical Examination

11.5.2.1. Sexing: Sexual Dimorphism:

11.5.3. Preventive Medicine

11.5.3.1. Current Legislation and Animal Identification System
11.5.3.2. Vaccination Protocol
11.5.3.3. Deworming Guidelines
11.5.3.4. Information on Sterilization

11.6. Sampling for Diagnosis and Pathways for Drug Administration

11.6.1. Venipuncture
11.6.2. Medication administration
11.6.3. Urine Collection
11.6.4. Radiographic Images Necessary to Reach the Correct Diagnosis and How to Perform Them

11.7. Diagnostic Techniques:

11.7.1. Sample Analysis: Key Factor for a Reliable Diagnosis

11.7.1.1. Urine Sample. Interpretation of Results
11.7.1.2. Blood Sample. Different Results

11.7.2. The X-Ray as a Basic Tool

11.7.2.1. Radiographic Interpretation and Diagnostic Imaging

11.7.3. Ultrasound to Diagnose Specific Pathologies

11.7.3.1. Main Approaches

11.7.4. Other Diagnostic Techniques

11.8. Skin and Gastrointestinal Pathologies: Listing the Most Frequent Pathologies

11.8.1. External Parasites
11.8.2. Fungal Infections
11.8.3. Bacterial Infections
11.8.4. Viral Infections
11.8.5. Dermal Neoplasms:
11.8.6. Other Dermal Alterations
11.8.7. Dental Problems
11.8.8. Mucocele
11.8.9. Foreign Bodies and Impaction
11.8.10. Internal Parasites:
11.8.11. Bacterial Enteritis
11.8.12. Ileum

11.9. Respiratory and Genitourinary Disorders

11.9.1. Respiratory Diseases of Rabbits and Rodents
11.9.2. Cystitis and Urolithiasis
11.9.3. Dystocia
11.9.4. Hyperestrogenism
11.9.5. Mammary Tumors
11.9.6. Gestational Toxemia,
11.9.7. Ovarian Cysts
11.9.8. Paraphimosis
11.9.9. Pyometra and Hemometra

11.10. Other Less Frequent Pathologies of Interest, But of Equal Importance

11.10.1. Musculoskeletal Alterations

11.10.1.1. Vitamin C Deficit
11.10.1.2. Fractures and Dislocation of the Rachis in Rabbits

11.10.2. Neurological Alterations:

11.10.2.1. Vestibular Syndrome in Rabbits
11.10.2.2. Epilepsy in Gerbils

11.10.3. Other Pathologies:

11.10.3.1. Viral Hemorrhagic Disease
11.10.3.2. Myxomatosis
11.10.3.3. Lymphomas

Module 12. Advanced Criteria in Rabbits and Rodents

12.1. Anatomo-Physiological Reminder of the Oral Cavity

12.1.1. Anatomy of the Oral Cavity

12.1.1.1. Dental Formula
12.1.1.2. Types of Dentition
12.1.1.3. Types of Mastication

12.1.2. Origin of Dental Pathologies

12.1.2.1. Genetic Origin
12.1.2.2. Traumatic Origin
12.1.2.3. Systemic Origin
12.1.2.4. Dietary Origin

12.1.3. Types of Oral Pathologies

12.1.3.1. Malocclusion of Incisors
12.1.3.2. Malocclusion of Premolars and Molars

12.2. Oral Pathologies

12.2.1. Symptoms Associated With Dental Pathologies. Early Diagnosis

12.2.1.1. Symptoms According to Location
12.2.1.2. Presumptive Diagnosis and Work Plan
12.2.1.3. Complementary Diagnostic Tests
12.2.1.4. Firm Diagnosis

12.2.2. Prevention, Treatment and Prognosis of Patients With Oral Pathologies

12.2.2.1. Medical Treatment
12.2.2.2. Surgical Treatment: New Advances in the Treatment of Oral Abscesses

12.3. Fundamental Zoonoses in Lagomorphs and Rodents

12.3.1. Basic Features of Prevention and Protection of the Veterinary Professional
12.3.2. Diseases of Bacterial Origin

12.3.2.1. Francisella Tularensis
12.3.2.2. Pasteurellosis
12.3.2.3. Salmonellosis
12.3.2.4. Bordetella Sp
12.3.2.5. Brucellosis
12.3.2.6. Yersinia Pestis
12.3.2.7. Q fever

12.3.3. Parasitic Diseases

12.3.3.1. Internal Parasites:
12.3.3.2. External Parasites

12.4. Advanced Zoonoses in Lagomorphs and Rodents

12.4.1. Diseases Caused by Protozoos

12.4.1.1. Encephalytozoonosis
12.4.1.2. Toxoplasmosis
12.4.1.3. Giardiasis

12.4.2. Viral Diseases

12.4.2.1. Herpesvirus

12.4.3. Diseases of Fungal Origin

12.4.3.1. Dermatophytosis
12.4.3.2. Microsporum sp
12.4.3.3. Trichophyton Mentagrophytes

12.5. Most Commonly Used Anesthesia Techniques in Rodent and Lagomorph Clinics

12.5.1. Basic Concepts
12.5.2. Anaesthesia -Analgesia Epidural
12.5.3. Sedation and General Anaesthesia

12.6. Updated Anesthesia Techniques

12.6.1. Anatomical Review of the Facial Nerves
12.6.2. Local Anesthesia and Cranial Nerve Block
12.6.3. Jaw Nerve Blockade
12.6.4. Infraorbital Nerve Block
12.6.5. Palatine Nerve Block
12.6.6. Mandibular Nerve Block
12.6.7. Mental Nerve Block
12.6.8. Anesthesia in the Emergency Department: Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

12.7. Ophthalmology in Lagomorphs and Rodents

12.7.1. Common Ocular Infections
12.7.2. Corneal Ulcers. Diagnosis and Treatment
12.7.3. Protrusion of the Nictitating Membrane
12.7.4. Pseudoterigion
12.7.5. Naso-lacrimal Duct Catheterization in Rabbits

12.8. Updated Medical Treatments

12.8.1. Relevant Aspects
12.8.2. Safe Drugs and Suitable Dosage
12.8.3. Common Drugs in Other Species, But Banned For Lagomorphs and Rodents

12.9. Basic Surgical Techniques

12.9.1. Pre-Surgery Factors
12.9.2. Surgery Factors
12.9.3. Post-Surgical Factors
12.9.4. Lagomorph and Rodent Sterilization Techniques

12.10. Advanced Surgical Techniques

12.10.1. Cystotomy in Rabbits and Guinea Pigs
12.10.2. Urethrotomy and Perineal Urethrostomy in Rabbits
12.10.3. Gastrotomy in Lagomorphs and Rodents
12.10.4. Enterotomy and Enterectomy in Lagomorphs and Rodents

Module 13. Symptoms and Therapeutics for Ferrets

13.1. Introduction to the Ferret Symptoms. Reinforced Basis to Move Towards a Diagnosis

13.1.1. Anatomy

13.1.1.1. Taxonomic Classification
13.1.1.2. Anatomophysiological Peculiarities
13.1.1.3. Noticeable Differences With Other Domestic Carnivores
13.1.1.4. Sexual Dimorphism:
13.1.1.5. Physiological Parameters

13.1.2. Maintenance and Nutritional Requirements of Ferrets

13.1.2.1. Interior and Exterior Accommodation
13.1.2.2. Specific Facilities
13.1.2.3. Absorbent Hygienic Bedding
13.1.2.4. Hospitalization Maintenance Requirements

13.1.2.4.1. Nutritional Classification
13.1.2.4.2. Feeding Guidelines
13.1.2.4.3. Nutritional Requirements in Special Physiological Situations

13.2. Clinical Handling and Preventive Medicine: The Importance of the First Visit to the Veterinarian Center

13.2.1. Receiving the Patient and Clinical History
13.2.2. Physical Examination: Systematic Physical Examination Protocol
13.2.3. Clinical Handling and Veterinary Actions. Physical Containment of the Ferret for Examination, Diagnostic Techniques and How to Apply Treatments

13.2.3.1. No Contact With the Patient
13.2.3.2. Light Containment
13.2.3.3. Light Immobilization
13.2.3.4. Full Immobilization

13.2.4. Sexing: Sexual Dimorphism:
13.2.5. Preventive Medicine

13.2.5.1. Current Legislation and Animal Identification System
13.2.5.2. Vaccination Protocol
13.2.5.3. Deworming Guidelines
13.2.5.4. Information on Sterilization

13.3. Pathways for Administering Drugs and Diagnostic Techniques

13.3.1. Venipuncture

13.3.1.1. Access to the Cephalic Vein
13.3.1.2. Vena Cava: Location and Common Use
13.3.1.3. Lateral Saphenous Vein

13.3.2. Medication administration

13.3.2.1. Oral Posology
13.3.2.2. Subcutaneous Route
13.3.2.3. Intramuscular Route
13.3.2.4. Intravenous Route
13.3.2.5. Intracardiac Route
13.3.2.6. The Importance of Nebulizations

13.3.3. Urine Collection
13.3.4. Radiographic Images Necessary to Reach the Correct Diagnosis and How to Perform Them

13.3.4.1. Handling Techniques for Performing X-Rays Without Sedation
13.3.4.2. The X-Ray as a Basic Tool

13.3.5. Laboratory Samples: Interpretation and Results

13.3.5.1. Urine Sample. Interpretation of Results
13.3.5.2. Blood Sample. Different Results

13.3.6. Ultrasound to Diagnose Specific Pathologies

13.3.6.1. Main Ultrasound Approaches

13.4. Skin Diseases. Update on Dermatological Cases in Ferrets

13.4.1. Alopecia: Very Common in Clinical Practice

13.4.1.1. Non-Specific Symptoms That Should Not Be Forgotten

13.4.2. Ectoparasites. Symptoms and Treatment Discussion

13.4.2.1. Ear Mites
13.4.2.2. Fleas. Ctenocephalides Felis and C. Canis
13.4.2.3. Ticks

13.4.3. Dermal Neoplasms: Very Common in Ferrets

13.4.3.1. Carcinomas
13.4.3.2. Sebaceous Adenomas
13.4.3.3. Epitheliomas
13.4.3.4. Cystadenomas
13.4.3.5. Epitheliotropic Cutaneous Lymphomas

13.5. Problems of the Oral Cavity: Pathologies Similar to Those of Other Domestic Carnivores

13.5.1. Dental Malocclusion: Congenital Causes
13.5.2. Double Dentition: Supranumerary Incisors
13.5.3. Dental Fractures: The Most Common Dental Pathology
13.5.4. Periodontal Disease: Ferrets of Medium - Advanced Age. Geriatrics
13.5.5. Tooth Abscesses

13.5.5.1. Advanced Periodontal Disease
13.5.5.2. Malpractice

13.5.6. Alterations in Dental Coloring. There are Two Classifications

13.5.6.1. Dental Stains

13.5.6.1.1. Intrinsic Staining of the Teeth
13.5.6.1.2. Extrinsic Staining

13.5.6.2. Dental Coloring

13.6. Gastrointestinal Pathologies. The Importance of Diagnostic Tools

13.6.1. Gastritis

13.6.1.1. Gastric Ulcers
13.6.1.2. Causes. Diagnosis and Treatment

13.6.2. Diarrheic Processes: Most Common Symptoms in Ferrets
13.6.3. Presence of Internal Parasites

13.6.3.1. Leonine Toxascaris
13.6.3.2. Toxacara Cati
13.6.3.3. Ancylostoma Sp
13.6.3.4. Dipylidium Caninum
13.6.3.5. Giardia Sp
13.6.3.6. Coccidiosis

13.6.4. Inflammatory Bowel Disease

13.6.4.1. Lymphoplasmacytic
13.6.4.2. Eosinophilic

13.6.5. Epizootic Catarrhal Enteritis (Coronavirus)

13.6.5.1. Frequency, Clinical Picture and Diagnosis

13.6.6. Infectious Peritonitis (Systemic Coronavirus)

13.6.6.1. High Frequency
13.6.6.2. Symptoms and Diagnosis
13.6.6.3. Prognosis of the Disease

13.7. Respiratory Pathologies:

13.7.1. Human Influenza: Orthomyxovirus

13.7.1.1. Transmission
13.7.1.2. Clinical Picture
13.7.1.3. Diagnosis
13.7.1.4. Treatment

13.7.2. Distemper Virus: Paramyxovirus

13.7.2.1. Progression of the Disease
13.7.2.2. Diagnosis
13.7.2.3. Prevention: The Best Tool Currently Available

13.8. Endocrine Pathologies. The Main Issue With Ferrets

13.8.1. Hyperadrenocorticism in Ferrets

13.8.1.1. Definition and General Concepts
13.8.1.2. Adrenal Gland Anatomy. Localization
13.8.1.3. Endocrinological Functioning of the Adrenal Glands

13.8.1.3.1. Reminder of Hormonal Functioning

13.8.1.4. Typical and Non-Specific Symptoms

13.8.1.4.1. Alopecia
13.8.1.4.2. General Malaise: Anorexia
13.8.1.4.3. Genital Inflammation
13.8.1.4.4. Other Symptoms

13.8.1.5. Establishing a Diagnosis

13.8.1.5.1. Differential Diagnosis and Work Plan
13.8.1.5.2. Complementary Tests: The Importance of Ultrasound

13.8.1.5.2.1. Studies on the Measurement of Adrenal Glands

13.8.1.5.3. Other Complementary Tests

13.8.1.6. Management Patient Stabilization

13.8.1.6.1. Surgical: Left or Bilateral, Total or Partial Adrenalectomy
13.8.1.6.2. Medical:

13.8.1.6.2.1. Deslorelin Implant
13.8.1.6.2.2. Agonists of the Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
13.8.1.6.2.3. Other Medical Treatments Used

13.8.2. Hyperestrogenism

13.8.2.1. Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment

13.9. Other Important Pathologies

13.9.1. Urinary Pathologies

13.9.1.1. Renal Cysts

13.9.1.1.1. Clinical Findings
13.9.1.1.2. Treatment

13.9.1.2. Bladder Uroliths

13.9.1.2.1. Frequency (F)
13.9.1.2.2. Types of Calculi and Recommended Treatment

13.9.2. The Cardiac Patient

13.9.2.1. The Most Common Symptoms
13.9.2.2. The Diagnostic Tools: X-rays, Electrocardiograms, Ultrasound Scans
13.9.2.3. Common Treatments and Case Monitoring

13.9.3. Aleutian Disease

13.9.3.1. Causes
13.9.3.2. Characteristic Symptomatology
13.9.3.3. Early Diagnosis

13.9.4. Neoplasms

13.9.4.1. Insulinoma: Very Common Pathology in MiddleAged Ferrets

13.9.4.1.1. Causes. Symptoms
13.9.4.1.2. Diagnostic Plan
13.9.4.1.3. Effective Treatment

13.9.4.2. Lymphoma

13.9.4.2.1. Causes
13.9.4.2.2. Diagnostic Plan

13.10. Surgical Techniques in Ferrets

13.10.1. Most Commonly Used Anesthesia and Analgesia in Ferrets

13.10.1.1. Analgesia
13.10.1.2. Sedation
13.10.1.3. General Anesthesia
13.10.1.4. Anesthesia in the Emergency Department: Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

13.10.2. Basic Surgical Techniques

13.10.2.1. Pre-Surgical, Surgical and Post-Surgical Factors
13.10.2.2. Lagomorph and Rodent Sterilization Techniques

13.10.3. Advanced Surgical Techniques

13.10.3.1. Adrenalectomy in Ferrets

13.10.3.1.1. Surgical Technique: Bilateral, Unilateral, Total or Partial Decisions Prior

13.10.3.2. Saculectomy: Anal Sacs Located in the Perianal Space

13.10.3.2.1. The Most Common Approaches Currently Used
13.10.3.2.2. When It Goes Wrong: Complications

13.10.3.3. Cystotomy

13.10.3.3.1. Indications: Neoplasms and Urinary Obstructions
13.10.3.3.2. Surgical Technique

13.10.3.4. Urethrotomy and Urethrostomy in Ferrets

13.10.3.4.1. Anatomic Reminder: Os Penis (Penis Bone)
13.10.3.4.2. Indications: Neoplasms, Distal Urethral Strictures and Urinary Obstructions
13.10.3.4.3. Surgical Technique

13.10.3.5. Gastrotomy, Enterotomy and Enterectomy in Ferrets

13.10.3.5.1. Indications: Gastrointestinal Obstructions, Foreign Bodies, Neoplasms and Biopsies
13.10.3.5.2. Surgical Technique

Module 14. New Pets

14.1. Taxonomic Classification: Noticeable Differences Between Species

14.1.1. Squirrels, Prairie Dogs and Richardson's Squirrels: Small Rodents of Worldwide Distribution

14.1.1.1. Common or Red Squirrel (Sciurus Vulgaris)
14.1.1.2. Grey Squirrel (Sciurus Carolinensis)
14.1.1.3. Siberian Chipmunk (Eutamias Sibiricus)
14.1.1.4. Eastern Chipmunk (Tamias Striatus)
14.1.1.5. Prairie Dog (Cynomys Spp)
14.1.1.6. Richardson’s Squirrels (Urocitellus / Spermophilus Rochardsonii)

14.1.2. Hedgehogs: The Most Common Species

14.1.2.1. African White-Bellied, 4-Toed or Pygmy Hedgehog (Atelerix Albiventris)
14.1.2.2. Egyptian Hedgehog (Hemiechinus Auritus)
14.1.2.3. European Hedgehog (Erinaceus Europaeus)
14.1.2.4. Moorish Hedgehod (Erinaceus Algirus)

14.1.3. Pet Pigs

14.1.3.1. Vietnamese Pig (Sus Scrofa Domestica)
14.1.3.2. Kune Pig (Sus Scrofa Domestica)

14.2. Maintenance in Captivity: Specific Facilities. Furniture and Special Features

14.2.1. Sciuromorphs. Thermal Factor

14.2.1.1. Body and Environmental Temperature in Each Species

14.2.2. Hedgehogs: Nocturnal, Territorial and Solitary Animals

14.2.2.1. Body and Environmental Temperature
14.2.2.2. Behavior in the Wild and in Captivity
14.2.2.3. The “Self-Anointing”. A Characteristic Behavior of the Species

14.2.3. Pet Pigs: Dwarf Pigs

14.2.3.1. Body and Environmental Temperature
14.2.3.2. Interior and Exterior Facilities
14.2.3.3. Environmental Enrichment: Techniques for Preventing Destructive Behavior
14.2.3.4. Behavior in the Wild: Extrapolation to Captivity

14.3. Nutritional Aspects: Nutritional Specifications in the Diets. Different Nutritional program for Each Species

14.3.1. Sciuromorphs

14.3.1.1. Classification According to their Habits

14.3.1.1.1. Arboreal
14.3.1.1.2. Mixed
14.3.1.1.3. Land

14.3.1.2. General Dental Distribution
14.3.1.3. Changes in Feeding for Hibernation
14.3.1.4. Nutritional Deficiencies

14.3.2. Hedgehogs: Very Different Nutrition in Captivity Than in the Wild
14.3.3. Pet Pigs: They Are Omnivores

14.4. Anatomic Reminder: Different Species, Different Anatomies

14.4.1. Sciuromorphs

14.4.1.1. Oral Cavity. Types of Dentition
14.4.1.2. Sexual Dimorphism: Only Clear in Adult Specimens
14.4.1.3. Special Criteria for Reproduction: One Litter Per Year
14.4.1.4. Differences Between Species

14.4.2. Hedgehogs: They Are Polygamous

14.4.2.1. Sexual Dimorphism:
14.4.2.2. Special Criteria for Reproduction
14.4.2.3. Anatomic Considerations

14.4.3. Pet Pigs:

14.4.3.1. Special Criteria for Reproduction
14.4.3.2. Anatomy Recap

14.5. Clinical Handling and Preventive Medicine: The Key Factor for Excellence in the Eyes of the Owner. Key Questions:

14.5.1. Sciuromorphs

14.5.1.1. Handling Techniques for Examination in the Practice

14.5.2. Hedgehogs:
14.5.3. Pet Pigs
14.5.4. Preventive Medicine

14.5.4.1. Current Legislation and Animal Identification System
14.5.4.2. Vaccination Protocol
14.5.4.3. Deworming Guidelines
14.5.4.4. Information on Sterilization

14.6. Sampling for Diagnosis and Pathways for Drug Administration

14.6.1. Sciuromorphs
14.6.2. Hedgehogs
14.6.3. Pet Pigs

14.7. The Most Important Zoonoses: Protection as a Key Factor in the Veterinarians Practice

14.7.1. Sciuromorphs

14.7.1.1. Animals Born in Captivity
14.7.1.2. Captured Animals That Live in Captivity

14.7.2. Hedgehogs

14.7.2.1. Demodex Spp
14.7.2.2. Notoedrees Cati

14.7.3. Pigs:

14.7.3.1. Hydatidosis

14.8. Most Common Pathologies in Sciuromorphs

14.8.1. Update on Dermatology in Squirrels, Prairie Dogs and Richardson’s Squirrels

14.8.1.1. Alopecia
14.8.1.2. Scabies: Sarcoptes Scabiei and Notoedres Cati
14.8.1.3. Dermatophytosis

14.8.2. Pathologies of the Oral Cavity: Most Frequent Dentistry Problems

14.8.2.1. Most Frequent Causes
14.8.2.2. Treatment
14.8.2.3. The Pseudo-Odontoma: The Most Common Dental Problem in Prairie Dogs

14.8.2.3.1. Predisposing Causes: Repeated Trauma
14.8.2.3.2. Symptoms: The Reason for Coming to the Practice
14.8.2.3.3. Effective Diagnosis
14.8.2.3.4. Definitive Treatment

14.9. The Most Common Pathologies in Hedgehogs

14.9.1. Scabies: Loss of Spikes That Scares the Owner

14.9.1.1. Caparinia Tripilis
14.9.1.2. Symptoms and Treatment

14.9.2. Dermatophytosis

14.9.2.1. Trichophyton Mentagrophytes and Microsporum Spp
14.9.2.2. Symptoms and Treatment

14.9.3. Respiratory Pathologies: Pneumonias

14.9.3.1. Bordetella Bronchiseptica
14.9.3.2. Multicide Pasteurella
14.9.3.3. Mycoplasma Spp

14.9.4. Nerve Pathologies: Whobbly Hedgehog Syndrom

14.9.4.1. Definition
14.9.4.2. Symptoms

14.10. The Most Common Pathologies in Dwarf Pigs

14.10.1. Dermal Pathologies: A Common Issue in the Practice
14.10.2. Parasitosis

14.10.2.1. Sarcoptes Scabiei
14.10.2.2. Haematopinus Suis

14.10.3. Botulism: Similar Symptoms to Other Dermal Lesions

14.10.3.1. Erysipelothrix Rusopathiae

14.10.4. Nail Overgrowth

14.10.4.1. Specific Anatomy of the Nails

14.10.5. Obesity: A Common Issue with Pigs in Captivity
14.10.6. Swine Pleuropneumonia: Low Incidence but High Mortality

14.10.6.1. Actinobacilus Pleuroneumoniae

Module 15. Relevant Aspects of Reptiles I

15.1. Introduction

15.1.1. Taxonomic Classification
15.1.2. The Most Common Species of Reptiles in Captivity
15.1.3. Other Reptiles Kept in Captivity

15.2. Anatomy:

15.2.1. Common Aspects in Reptiles

15.2.1.1. Skeletal System
15.2.1.2. Circulatory System
15.2.1.3. Digestive System

15.2.2. Particular Anatomy of Turtles
15.2.3. Anatomy of Lizards
15.2.4. Anatomy of Snakes

15.3. Maintenance: Suitable Facilities for Each Species

15.3.1. Special Furniture: Types of Terrariums and Their Dimensions
15.3.2. Water: Calculation of Daily Water Requirements
15.3.3. The Material of the Terrarium
15.3.4. The Importance of temperature: POTZ (Preferred Optimum Temperature Zone)
15.3.5. The Importance of Humidity
15.3.6. Controlling Light: Effects on Their Organism

15.3.6.1. Types of Radiation
15.3.6.2. Existing Materials on the Market

15.3.7. Living Together

15.3.7.1. Interspecific
15.3.7.2. Intraspecific

15.4. Hibernation or Diapause

15.4.1. Relevant Concepts
15.4.2. Types of Hibernation
15.4.3. Species that Hibernate
15.4.4. Problems Derived from Hibernation

15.5. Nutritional Requirements: Nutrition

15.5.1. Classification Depending on the Type of Diet
15.5.2. Factors to be Assessed in Each Physiological State
15.5.3. Diet for Herbivore Species
15.5.4. Diet for Insectivore Species
15.5.5. Diet for Carnivore Species

15.6. Clinical Management

15.6.1. Reptile Transportation

15.6.1.1. How to go to the clinic
15.6.1.2. Long-Haul Transportation
15.6.1.3. Legislation

15.6.2. Containing the Reptile for its Examination
15.6.3. Caudal Autotomy
15.6.4. Physical Examination
15.6.5. Sexing Techniques

15.6.5.1. Turtles
15.6.5.2. Lizards
15.6.5.3. Ophidians

15.6.6. Handing During Hospitalization

15.7. Sampling and Drug Administration

15.7.1. Oral Posology

15.7.1.1. Suitable Techniques
15.7.1.2. Administering Food During Hospitalization

15.7.2. Subcutaneous Route
15.7.3. Intramuscular Route
15.7.4. Intravenous Route Intravenous Catheterization

15.7.4.1. Chelonids
15.7.4.2. Lizards
15.7.4.3. Ophidians

15.7.5. Intraosseous Route: Intraosseous Catheterization
15.7.6. Intracellular Route: Similar to the Intraperitoneal Route in Mammals

15.8. The X-Ray as a Basic Diagnostic Technique

15.8.1. Radiological Technique: Machinery and Optimum Radiographic Contrast
15.8.2. Handling During X-Rays and Radiographic Visualization

15.8.2.1. Chelonids
15.8.2.2. Lizards
15.8.2.3. Snakes

15.9. Other Diagnostic Imaging Techniques Used: Ultrasound and Endoscopy

15.9.1. Ultrasound in Reptiles: Complement to X-Rays
15.9.2. Endoscopy: With Several Uses

15.10. Other Diagnostic Techniques

15.10.1. Biopsies: Highly Valuable Information
15.10.2. Clinical Biochemistry
15.10.3. Cytological Techniques
15.10.4. Coprology in Reptiles
15.10.5. Microbiology: Detecting Viruses, Bacteria and Parasites
15.10.6. Necropsy: Post-Mortem Examination

Module 16. Relevant Aspects of Reptiles II

16.1. The Most Important Zoonoses

16.1.1. Prevention and Protection
16.1.2. Risk of Zoonosis from Handling
16.1.3. Risk of Zoonosis from Ingesting

16.2. Dermal Diseases:

16.2.1. Lesions: Trauma and Aggressions
16.2.2. Dysecdysis: Alteration of Skin Shedding
16.2.3. Thermal Burns Caused by a Lack of Information Provided to the Owner
16.2.4. Pyramiding: Deformation of the Shell
16.2.5. Otic Abscesses: Habitual in Chelonians
16.2.6. Ectoparasites
16.2.7. Hypovitaminosis A: Multifactorial Cause

16.3. Digestive Alterations

16.3.1. Estomatitis: Very Common in Reptiles
16.3.2. Intestinal Obstruction: Causes
16.3.3. Hepatic Lipidosis: Obesity in Reptiles
16.3.4. Internal Parasites: Different Species

16.4. Other Pathologies

16.4.1. Rhinitis: Dyspnea and Emergencies
16.4.2. Pneumonia: The Deficient Mucociliary System of Their Lungs
16.4.3. Renal Insufficiency: Very Common in Reptiles
16.4.4. Gout: Multifactorial Cause

16.5. What Dose of a Drug to Use?

16.5.1. Minimum Energy Cost
16.5.2. MEC (Metabolic Energy Constant) and SMEC (Specific Minimum Energy Cost) Dose Values
16.5.3. Dose Examples

16.6. Common Treatments

16.6.1. Antibiotics
16.6.2. Disinfectants
16.6.3. Nutritional Treatments
16.6.4. Antimycotics
16.6.5. Antiparasitics II
16.6.6. Harmful Treatments

16.7. The Success of Anesthesia

16.7.1. Anesthetic Evaluation
16.7.2. Pre-Medication
16.7.3. Induction With Anesthetic Gas

16.7.3.1. Types of Gases
16.7.3.2. Anesthetic Circuitry

16.7.4. Anesthetic Recovery

16.8. Techniques and Applications of Basic Surgery

16.8.1. Esophagotomy
16.8.2. Intracellular access in Saurians and Ophidians: Celiotomy
16.8.3. Cloacal Replacement
16.8.4. Tympanic Removal Due to Abscesses

16.9. Advanced Surgical Techniques:

16.9.1. Cloacal or Penile Prolapse
16.9.2. Egg Retention
16.9.3. Hepatic biopsy
16.9.4. Renal Biopsy

16.10. Common Orthopedic Surgeries

16.10.1. Metabollic Bone Disease: SNHP (Secondary Nutritional Hyperparathyroidism)
16.10.2. Tail Amputation
16.10.3. Limb Amputation and Fractures
16.10.4. Shell Fractures

Module 17. Wild Animal Medicine and Surgery

17.1. Triage and Emergency Care of Wildlife

17.1.1. Legislation, Organization and Function of Animal Centers
17.1.2. The Philosophy and Ethics of Wild Life
17.1.3. Answering Questions About Treatment and Release into the Wild
17.1.4. The Relationship With the Wildlife Rehabilitator
17.1.5. Emergency Treatment of Wildlife
17.1.6. Animal Identification Techniques: Indispensable for Population Control

17.2. Selection and Emergency Treatment in Wild Patients

17.2.1. Trauma
17.2.2. Oil Spills
17.2.3. Intoxications
17.2.4. Infectious Diseases
17.2.5. Geriatric Animals
17.2.6. Natural Disasters
17.2.7. Rehabilitation and Release of Wild Patients

17.3. Real Situations of Wildlife Anesthesia and Immobilization

17.3.1. Ideal Situation
17.3.2. Real Situation
17.3.3. Pre-Anesthetic Considerations
17.3.4. Public Safety

17.4. The Anesthetic Procedure in Relation to Wildlife

17.4.1. The Immobilization Process
17.4.2. Non-Injectable Anesthetics
17.4.3. Non-Injectable Anesthetics
17.4.4. Anesthetic Recovery: Capture Myopathy

17.5. Bacterial Diseases of Wildlife I

17.5.1. Leptospirosis: Leptospira spp
17.5.2. Brucellosis: Undulant Fever
17.5.3. The Bubonic plague: Yersinia Pestis

17.6. Bacterial Diseases of Wildlife II

17.6.1. Psittacosis: Ornithosis and Chlamydiosis
17.6.2. Salmonellosis: Salmonella Spp
17.6.3. Tetanus: Clostridium Tetanii
17.6.4. Tularemia: Rabbit Fever

17.7. Other Important Diseases in Wildlife III

17.7.1. Aspergillosis: Aspergillus Fumigatus
17.7.2. Histoplasmosis: Histoplasma Capsulatum
17.7.3. Rabies: Rhabdovirus
17.7.4. Helminth Diseases: Parasites

17.8. Ursid Medicine

17.8.1. Taxonomy: Ursidae Family
17.8.2. Most Common Species of Bears
17.8.3. Eye Anesthesia: Required Drugs
17.8.4. Most Common Infectious Diseases
17.8.5. Biometrics
17.8.6. Diagnostic Techniques
17.8.7. Vaccination: Vaccine Types and Protocols

17.9. Wild Feline Medicine

17.9.1. Taxonomy: Felidae Family
17.9.2. Most Common Species of Wild Felines
17.9.3. Anesthesia in Wild Felines: Common Drugs
17.9.4. Most Common Infectious Diseases
17.9.5. Other Important Diseases
17.9.6. Biometrics
17.9.7. Diagnostic Techniques

17.10. Medicine in Primates

17.10.1. Taxonomic Classification: Primates of the New World and the Old World
17.10.2. The Most Common Species of Primates
17.10.3. Anesthesia in Primates: Common Drugs
17.10.4. Most Common Infectious Diseases

Module 18. Care and Pathologies in Fish

18.1. Veterinary Clinical Activity in Fish: Basis for Clinical Diagnosis

18.1.1. Profile of the Clinic: The Global Picture
18.1.2. The Different Aquatic Environments

18.1.2.1. Natural Aquatic Environment and Ornamental Fish Keeping Facilities
18.1.2.2. The Role of Technology in Water Maintenance

18.1.3. Chemical Properties of the Water

18.1.3.1. Chemical Criteria
18.1.3.2. Biological Criteria

18.2. Anatomic Reminder: Guidelines to Achieve Cross-Species Identification

18.2.1. Taxonomic Classification
18.2.2. Most Common Species of Fish

18.2.2.1. Ornamental Fish
18.2.2.2. Fish for Consumption
18.2.2.3. Laboratory Fish

18.3. Clinical Handling: Guidelines for Their Appropriate Handling

18.3.1. Appropriate Anamnesis
18.3.2. Correct Physical Evaluation
18.3.3. Basic Handling Techniques
18.3.4. Specialized Methods in Clinical Techniques

18.3.4.1. Taking Samples for Complementary Tests

18.4. Clinical Guidelines: The Definitive Diagnosis

18.4.1. Identifying Clinical Problems
18.4.2. Postmortem Diagnostic Techniques: The Major Finding

18.4.2.1. Necropsy Technique

18.4.3. Interpreting Clinical Findings
18.4.4. Zoonosis: The Importance of Knowledge for Our Protection
18.4.5. Biosafety
18.4.6. Patient Protection
18.4.7. Food Safety
18.4.8. Environmental Safety

18.5. Pathologies Diagnosed with Simple Water Analysis Kits: Improper Handling of the Acuatic Environment

18.5.1. Low Concentration of Oxygen
18.5.2. Adequate Temperature Control

18.5.2.1. Thermal Gradients

18.5.3. Toxicity Due to Ammonia Concentration
18.5.4. Toxicity Due to Nitrite Concentration
18.5.5. Controlling the pH of the Water
18.5.6. Appropriate Use and Measurement of the Water pH
18.5.7. Concentration of Solutes in Water

18.5.7.1. Hard Water
18.5.7.2. Inadequate Salinity

18.6. Pathologies Derived from an Improper Maintenance: The Fish as an Individual Patient

18.6.1. Nutritional Deficiency
18.6.2. Presence of Inappropriate Toxic Substances: Poisons
18.6.3. Pathologies Due to the Presence of Algae
18.6.4. Trauma
18.6.5. Genetic Alterations

18.7. Pathologies Caused by Microorganisms:

18.7.1. Viral:
18.7.2. Bacterial
18.7.3. Parasitic

18.8. Pathologies that Require Complementary Diagnostic Tests

18.8.1. Incorrect Concentration of Gas
18.8.2. Trematode Infections
18.8.3. Nematode Infections
18.8.4. Cestode Infections
18.8.5. Ceratomyxa Shasta Infection
18.8.6. Microsporidiosis
18.8.7. Coccidiosis
18.8.8. Processes of Renal Destruction

18.9. Treatment Administration: General Concepts and the Most Used Methods

18.9.1. Guide of Treatments Used
18.9.2. Medicine Administration Routes
18.9.3. Choosing the Right Dosage

18.10. Most Commonly Used Anesthesia Techniques: Administering Anesthesia

18.10.1. Patient Response to Aesthesia
18.10.2. Euthanasia
18.10.3. Toxicity and Residues Generated by the Environment

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